ARC Training

Tracking Changes¶

Overview

Teaching: 20 min
Exercises: 0 min

Questions

How do I record changes in Git?
How do I check the status of my version control repository?
How do I record notes about what changes I made and why?

Objectives

Go through the modify-add-commit cycle for one or more files.
Explain where information is stored at each stage of that cycle.
Distinguish between descriptive and non-descriptive commit messages.

First let’s make sure we’re still in the right directory. You should be in the planets directory.

% pwd

If you are still in moons navigate back up to planets:

% cd ..

Let’s create a file called mars.txt that contains some notes about the Red Planet’s suitability as a base. We’ll use nano to edit the file; you can use whatever editor you like. In particular, this does not have to be the core.editor you set globally earlier. But remember, the bash command to create or edit a new file will depend on the editor you choose (it might not be nano).

% nano mars.txt

Type the text below into the mars.txt file:

Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color

Save and exit nano. We have created mars.txt which we can see by running:

% ls

mars.txt

and check its contents with:

% cat mars.txt

Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color

If we check the status of our project again, Git tells us that it’s noticed the new file:

% git status

On branch master

Initial commit

Untracked files:
   (use "git add <file>..." to include in what will be committed)

    mars.txt
nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use "git add" to track)

The “untracked files” message means that there’s a file in the directory that Git isn’t keeping track of. We can tell Git to track a file using git add:

% git add mars.txt

On branch master

Initial commit

Changes to be committed:
  (use "git rm --cached <file>..." to unstage)

    new file:   mars.txt

Git now knows that it’s supposed to keep track of mars.txt, but it hasn’t recorded these changes as a commit yet. To get it to do that, we need to run one more command:

% git commit -m "Start notes on Mars as a base"

[master (root-commit) f22b25e] Start notes on Mars as a base
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)
 create mode 100644 mars.txt

When we run git commit, Git takes everything we have told it to save by using git add and stores a copy permanently inside the special .git directory. This permanent copy is called a commit (or revision) and its short identifier is f22b25e (Your commit will probably have another identifier.)

We use the -m flag (for “message”) to record a short, descriptive, and specific comment that will help us remember later on what we did and why. If we just run git commit without the -m option, Git will launch nano (or whatever other editor we configured as core.editor) so that we can write a longer message.

Good commit messages start with a brief (<50 characters) summary of changes made in the commit. If you want to go into more detail, add a blank line between the summary line and your additional notes.

If we run git status now:

git status

On branch master
nothing to commit, working directory clean

This tells us everything is up to date. If we want to know what we’ve done recently, we can ask Git to show us the project’s history using git log:

% git log

commit f22b25e3233b4645dabd0d81e651fe074bd8e73b
Author: Vlad Dracula <vlad@tran.sylvan.ia>
Date:   Thu Aug 22 09:51:46 2013 -0400

    Start notes on Mars as a base

git log lists all commits made to a repository in reverse chronological order. The listing for each commit includes the commit’s full identifier (which starts with the same characters as the short identifier printed by the git commit command earlier), the commit’s author, when it was created, and the log message Git was given when the commit was created.

Now suppose Dracula adds more information to the file. Again, we’ll edit with nano and then cat the file to show its contents. Run:

% nano mars.txt

and add the line:

The two moons may be a problem for Wolfman

save and exit, the check the contents with cat:

% cat mars.txt

Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color
The two moons may be a problem for Wolfman

Where are my changes?

If we run ls at this point, we will still see just one file called mars.txt. That’s because Git saves information about files’ history in the special .git directory mentioned earlier so that our filesystem doesn’t become cluttered (and so that we can’t accidentally edit or delete an old version).

When we run git status now, it tells us that a file it already knows about has been modified:

% git status

On branch master
Changes not staged for commit:
  (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
  (use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)

    modified:   mars.txt

no changes added to commit (use "git add" and/or "git commit -a")

The last line is the key phrase: “no changes added to commit”. We have changed this file, but we haven’t told Git we will want to save those changes (which we do with git add) nor have we saved them (which we do with git commit). So let’s do that now. It is good practice to always review our changes before saving them. We do this using git diff. This shows us the differences between the current state of the file and the most recently saved version:

% git diff

diff --git a/mars.txt b/mars.txt
index df0654a..315bf3a 100644
--- a/mars.txt
+++ b/mars.txt
@@ -1 +1,2 @@
 Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color
+The two moons may be a problem for Wolfman

The output is cryptic because it is actually a series of commands for tools like editors and patch telling them how to reconstruct one file given the other. If we break it down into pieces:

The first line tells us that Git is producing output similar to the Unix diff command comparing the old and new versions of the file. The second line tells exactly which versions of the file Git is comparing: df0654a and 315bf3a are unique computer-generated labels for those versions. The third and fourth lines once again show the name of the file being changed. The remaining lines are the most interesting, they show us the actual differences and the lines on which they occur. In particular, the + marker in the first column shows where we added a line.

After reviewing our change, it’s time to commit it:

% git commit -m "Add concerns about effects of Mars' moons on Wolfman"
% git status

On branch master
Changes not staged for commit:
  (use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
  (use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)

    modified:   mars.txt

no changes added to commit (use "git add" and/or "git commit -a")

Whoops: Git won’t commit because we didn’t use git add first. Let’s fix that:

% git add mars.txt
% git commit -m "Add concerns about effects of Mars' moons on Wolfman"

[master 34961b1] Add concerns about effects of Mars' moons on Wolfman
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)

Git insists that we add files to the set we want to commit before actually committing anything. This allows us to commit our changes in stages and capture changes in logical portions rather than only large batches. For example, suppose we’re adding a few citations to relevant research to our thesis. We might want to commit those additions, and the corresponding bibliography entries, but not commit some of our work drafting the conclusion (which we haven’t finished yet).

To allow for this, Git has a special staging area where it keeps track of things that have been added to the current changeset but not yet committed.

Staging Area

If you think of Git as taking snapshots of changes over the life of a project, git add specifies what will go in a snapshot (putting things in the staging area), and git commit then actually takes the snapshot, and makes a permanent record of it (as a commit). If you don’t have anything staged when you type git commit, Git will prompt you to use git commit -a or git commit --all, which is kind of like gathering everyone for the picture! However, it’s almost always better to explicitly add things to the staging area, because you might commit changes you forgot you made. (Going back to snapshots, you might get the extra with incomplete makeup walking on the stage for the snapshot because you used -a!) Try to stage things manually, or you might find yourself searching for “git undo commit” more than you would like! Stagig Area

Let’s watch as our changes to a file move from our editor to the staging area and into long-term storage. First, we’ll add another line to the file:

% nano mars.txt
% cat mars.txt

Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color
The two moons may be a problem for Wolfman
But the Mummy will appreciate the lack of humidity

And confirm the change with git

% git diff

diff --git a/mars.txt b/mars.txt
index 315bf3a..b36abfd 100644
--- a/mars.txt
+++ b/mars.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color
 The two moons may be a problem for Wolfman
+But the Mummy will appreciate the lack of humidity

So far, so good: we’ve added one line to the end of the file (shown with a + in the first column). Now let’s put that change in the staging area and see what git diff reports:

% git add mars.txt
% git diff

There is no output: as far as Git can tell, there’s no difference between what it’s been asked to save permanently and what’s currently in the directory. However, if we do this:

% git diff --staged

diff --git a/mars.txt b/mars.txt
index 315bf3a..b36abfd 100644
--- a/mars.txt
+++ b/mars.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 Cold and dry, but everything is my favorite color
 The two moons may be a problem for Wolfman
+But the Mummy will appreciate the lack of humidity

This shows us the difference between the last committed change and what’s in the staging area. Let’s save our changes:

% git commit -m "Discuss concerns about Mars' climate for Mummy"

[master 005937f] Discuss concerns about Mars' climate for Mummy
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)

and check our status:

% git status

On branch master
nothing to commit, working directory clean

How can we look at the history of what we’ve done so far:

% git log

commit 005937fbe2a98fb83f0ade869025dc2636b4dad5
Author: Vlad Dracula <vlad@tran.sylvan.ia>
Date:   Thu Aug 22 10:14:07 2013 -0400

    Discuss concerns about Mars' climate for Mummy

commit 34961b159c27df3b475cfe4415d94a6d1fcd064d
Author: Vlad Dracula <vlad@tran.sylvan.ia>
Date:   Thu Aug 22 10:07:21 2013 -0400

    Add concerns about effects of Mars' moons on Wolfman

commit f22b25e3233b4645dabd0d81e651fe074bd8e73b
Author: Vlad Dracula <vlad@tran.sylvan.ia>
Date:   Thu Aug 22 09:51:46 2013 -0400

    Start notes on Mars as a base

Word-based diffing

Sometimes, e.g. in the case of the text documents a line-wise diff is too coarse. That is where the --color-words option of git diff comes in very useful as it highlights the changed words using colors.

Paging the Log

When the output of git log is too long to fit in your screen, git uses a program to split it into pages of the size of your screen. When this “pager” is called, you will notice that the last line in your screen is a :, instead of your usual prompt.

To get out of the pager, press q. To move to the next page, press the space bar. To search for some_word in all pages, type /some_word and navigate through matches pressing n.

Limit Log Size

To avoid having git log cover your entire terminal screen, you can limit the number of commits that Git lists by using -N, where N is the number of commits that you want to view. For example, if you only want information from the last commit you can use:

% git log -1

commit 005937fbe2a98fb83f0ade869025dc2636b4dad5
Author: Vlad Dracula <vlad@tran.sylvan.ia>
Date:   Thu Aug 22 10:14:07 2013 -0400

   Discuss concerns about Mars' climate for Mummy

You can also reduce the quantity of information using the --oneline option:

% git log --oneline

* 005937f Discuss concerns about Mars' climate for Mummy
* 34961b1 Add concerns about effects of Mars' moons on Wolfman
* f22b25e Start notes on Mars as a base

You can also combine the --oneline options with others. One useful combination is:

% git log --oneline --graph --all --decorate

As before git log -h provides a brief overview of usage, while more detailed help is found with man git log.

Directories

Two important facts you should know about directories in Git.

Git does not track directories on their own, only files within them. Try it for yourself:

% mkdir directory
% git status
% git add directory
% git status

Note, our newly created empty directory directory does not appear in the list of untracked files even if we explicitly add it (via git add) to our repository. This is the reason why you will sometimes see .gitkeep files in otherwise empty directories. Unlike .gitignore, these files are not special and their sole purpose is to populate a directory so that Git adds it to the repository. In fact, you can name such files anything you like.

If you create a directory in your Git repository and populate it with files, you can add all files in the directory at once by:

git add <directory-with-files>

To recap, when we want to add changes to our repository, we first need to add the changed files to the staging area (git add) and then commit the staged changes to the repository (git commit):

git committing

Choosing a Commit Message

Which of the following commit messages would be most appropriate for the last commit made to mars.txt?

“Changes”
“Added line ‘But the Mummy will appreciate the lack of humidity’ to mars.txt”
“Discuss effects of Mars’ climate on the Mummy”

Solution

Committing Changes to Git

Which command(s) below would save the changes of myfile.txt to my local Git repository?

```
% git commit -m "my recent changes"
```

% git init myfile.txt 
% git commit -m "my recent changes"

% git add myfile.txt 
% git commit -m "my recent changes"

% git commit -m myfile.txt "my recent changes"

Solution

Committing Multiple Files

The staging area can hold changes from any number of files that you want to commit as a single snapshot.

Add some text to mars.txt noting your decision to consider Venus as a base
Create a new file venus.txt with your initial thoughts about Venus as a base for you and your friends
Add changes from both files to the staging area, and commit those changes.

Solution

Author and Committer

For each of the commits you have done, Git stored your name twice. You are named as the author and as the committer. You can observe that by telling Git to show you more information about your last commits:

% git log --format=full

When committing you can name someone else as the author:

% git commit --author="Vlad Dracula <vlad@tran.sylvan.ia>"

Create a new repository and create two commits: one without the --author option and one by naming a colleague of yours as the author. Run git log and git log --format=full. Think about ways how that can allow you to collaborate with your colleagues.